programs on the Flathead Indian Reservation.Interviews with eight early childhood teachers
as well as classroom observations were conducted.The investigation is framed by the fol-
lowing research question:How does the culture of the family and community shape curric-
ulum?Data analysis suggested that ongoing communication with parents and community
about teaching within a culturally relevant context,building a sense of belongingness and
community through ritual,and respecting children,families,and community were essential to
de fining the Native American Indian culture within these early learning programs.
INTRODUCTION
Instruction informed by children ’s home and
community culture is critical to supporting a sense of
belongingness that ultimately impacts academic
achievement (Banks,2002;Osterman,2000).Ameri-
can school populations are increasingly diversi fied
with immigrants and English language learners;but
American teachers are over 90%European American
(Nieto,2000).Educators who are from di fferent cul-
tural perspectives than those present in the families
and communities of the children they teach,‘‘may
render it di fficult to ‘‘see ’’the cultural identities
shaping the behaviors and achievement of their stu-
dents ’’(Moore,2004a).How then do we prepare the
predominantly European American teaching force to
strengthen the connection between home and school
cultures for children of diverse backgrounds?
Many researchers have examined schooling or
education in culture,a ffording opportunities for
educators to broaden their knowledge base and
learn about delivering curriculum from multiple
cultural perspectives (Bullock,2005;Lee &Walsh,
2005;Luo &Gilliard,2006;Nagayama &Gilliard,
2005;Walsh,2002).For example,Nagayama and
Gilliard (2005)investigated similarities and di ffer-
ences in curriculum in early childhood programs in
Japan and in the United States.The present study
extends these e fforts to understand education and
culture in early learning programs on a Native
American Indian Reservation.
The purpose of this study was to explore the
presence of family and community culture in curric-
ulum at three tribal early care and education
programs.Classroom observations and open-ended
interview questions with eight early childhood
teachers were conducted at three early learning
programs,two infant and toddler programs and one
toddler and preschool program on the Flathead
Indian Reservation.Data were collected by four
preservice early childhood teachers as a culminating
field experience for a special topic university course
called Cultures and Communities,in which the
preservice teachers were enrolled.Two university
professors served as investigators for this study,one
of whom taught the course and accompanied the
preservice teachers on the field experience that
resulted in data collection.
Culture and education in the three tribal early
learning programs were explored in this study
through teacher responses to interview questions,
field notes taken during classroom observations,and
journals written by the preservice teachers who col-
lected the data.The research question that guided the
study was:How does the culture of the family and
community shape curriculum?
RATIONALE AND CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK
In an essay exploring the dynamics between the
school and home culture in addition to a transfor-
mative approach to bringing family and community
culture into the schools,Moore (2004a)suggested
two issues emerged:the treatment of a child ’s per-
sonal,social,and cultural literacies within school
cultures a ffects the child ’s sense of belonging as well
as achievement (Osterman,2000),and the fact that
most educators are unprepared to work with cultural
values di fferent from their own (Banks,2002;Nieto,
2002).
Children experience a sense of belongingness
when their home culture is not alienated from the
school culture (Osterman,2000).When the school
culture that re flects the culture of a teaching force
that is 90%European American (Nieto,2000)is the
dominant culture,there is potential for the margin-
alization of children from cultural and linguistic
minorities (Moll,1992).To provide maximum
learning opportunities for all children,‘‘School and
home connections should work toward establishing a
network of interactions and authentic learning situ-
ations that draw immediately from student back-
ground,language,and culture ’’(Moore,2004a,
p.23).Skilled educators motivate students to learn
by inviting participation of multiple cultures andperspectives,providing students with opportunities to
connect curriculum with their own funds of knowl-
edge (Allen &Labbo,2001;Moll,1992;Moore with
Seeger,2005).
The notion of children having a sense of
belongingness within school cultures is clearly dem-
onstrated in many Native American communities,
especially in tribal K-12 schools on reservations,
where the majority of teachers are of European
American descent.For example,according to the
Department Head of Tribal Education on the
Flathead Reservation,the vast majority of teachers
in the public tribal schools are women,middle class,
and Anglo.She suggested that the educators have
little or no training in dealing with a culture di ffer-
ent from their own which has a negative e ffect on
the social belongingness and academic achievement
of Native children (J.Silverstone,personal commu-
nication,January 23,2003).It is interesting to note
that this fact did not hold true for the early child-
hood teacher participants in this study;all but one
of the teachers were registered tribal members and
all seemed motivated to provide early learning
curriculum within the context of family and
community culture.
It is often di fficult for educators who do not
share their students ’culture to provide curriculum
within the context of their students ’family and
community cultures (McIntosh,1989;Moore with
Seeger,2005).The education literature suggests that
a successful strategy for teaching children from
diverse cultures and languages is teachers exploring
who their students are in order to understand their
students ’family and community contexts (Jones &
Derman-Sparks,1992;Luo &Gilliard,2006;Moore,
2004a;Van Horn &Segal,2000;Yang &McMullen,
2003)as well as educators examining their cultural
identities and how their cultural lens a ffects their
teaching (Allen &Labbo,2001;Grossman,1999;
McIntosh,1989;Moore,2004a;Van Horn &Segal,
2000).
The purpose of this study was to explore the
presence of family and community culture in curric-
ulum at three tribal early care and education pro-
grams on the Flathead Indian Reservation.The
present study extends the literature that focuses on
examining education in culture providing opportu-
nities for educators to expand their knowledge base
through learning about delivering curriculum from
multiple cultural perspectives (Bullock,2005;Lee &
Walsh,2005;Luo &Gilliard,2006;Nagayama &
Gilliard,2005;Walsh,2002).
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY AND METHOD
The Participants and Setting
The participants of the study were eight female
early childhood educators with at least three years of
experience.Three of the teachers earned Associate ’s
degrees in Early Childhood Education,three earned
Bachelor ’s degrees in Education or a related field,and
two earned Child Development Associate Certi ficates
(CDAs).Seven out of eight were registered members
of the Salish or Kootenai tribes,or were descendants
of another American Indian tribe.Four female pre-
service teachers enrolled in an early childhood edu-
cation Assoiciate ’s degree program in a small
university in Montana collected the data.Data were
collected as a culminating research project for a
special topic course:Cultures and Communities.Two
university professors,both teacher educators,served
as investigators for the study.One of the investiga-
tors,L.Jennifer,was also the instructor for the
course in which the preservice teachers were enrolled
and for which the data for the present study were
collected.
The study took place on the Flathead Indian
Reservation.Two infant-toddler centers and one
toddler-preschool center located on the Flathead
Reservation were sites for the study.One of the
programs was located on the campus of a small four-
year degree granting tribal college,and two of the
programs were located in nearby tribal early learning
facilities.Many of the families enrolled in the pro-
grams were members or descendants of the Salish and
Kootenai tribes or members or descendants of other
American Indian tribes;and they were de fined as
being of low socioeconomic status.
The Flathead Indian Reservation located in
Montana is home to the Confederated Salish and
Kootenai tribes.The tribes are a combination of the
Salish,Pend d ’Oreille,and Kootenai and have lived
in this region for thousands of years (Travel Mon-
tana,2006).As of July 2003,the 1.2 million acre
reservation had 4,457 enrolled tribal members living
on the reservation,accounting for 17%of the pop-
ulation on the reservation,and 2,481 enrolled mem-
bers living o ffthe reservation (First Class News,
2003).
Additionally,Montana is ranked 48
th
in the
United States in terms of unemployment:in some
Montana counties the unemployment rate is between
5 –10%and on the Flathead Reservation the unem-
ployment rate is 41%.Of those who are employed on
the Flathead Indian Reservation,38 –48%accespoverty-based services on a seasonal basis (First
Class News,2003).In 2001,Montana had the fifth
lowest per capita income among all 50 states and the
average personal income was $22,532.The Montana
reservations ’per capita income in 2000 was estimated
at a low of $7,100 and a high of $22,754,with the
average per capita income $14,738 (First Class News,
2003).
Research Questions and Data Sources
The research was guided by the following ques-
tion:How does the culture of the family and com-
munity shape curriculum in the investigated tribal
early childhood programs?
Prior to the study,the preservice teachers were
instructed by their professor on a phenomenological
approach to qualitative research (Valle &King,1978)
along with interview and observation procedures and
qualitative research design (Creswell,1998;Moore,
2004b).In addition,the preservice teachers engaged
in multiple class activities and read from multiple
sources that explored background information and
knowledge on how cultures in fluence communities
and schooling.
Table 1.Interview Questions
What is your work title and the name of the school/institution for
which you work?
Please describe any training or education you have had to prepare
you for your job as an early childhood educator.Have you taken
some college courses or hold a degree or CDA?If so,in what area
is your degree?
Would you please describe your culture and ethnicity?
Please describe the children you teach.How old are they?Do they
have special learning needs?Describe their culture and ethnicity.
Would you describe your teaching philosophy or beliefs?
How are aspects of culture or multiple cultures included in your
curriculum?
Please describe a typical day in your classroom.
How are parents included in your program/classroom?
Do you believe that your culture has in fluenced your teaching or
instruction?If so,how?
Do you believe that the culture of the children you teach has
in fluenced your teaching?If so,how?
How do you individualize instruction around the culture of the
children you teach?
What are some cultural issues that might impact learning in your
classroom?
What do you believe is important for teachers to know about
instructing children from diverse cultures or backgrounds?
Is there anything else you would like to tell me that might be
helpful to me as an early childhood teacher who is interested in
adapting instruction to cultural di fferences of learners?Data were collected at the end of two full days of
observation and interviews.Data sources for the
study included the following:(1)the re flective jour-
nals in which the preservice teachers wrote responses
to what they were learning about home and school
culture in the tribal early childhood programs;(2)
interview responses from the early childhood teach-
ers;and (3)field notes of the principal investigator
and the preservice teachers.A copy of the interview
questions is provided in Table 1.
Procedures
Classroom observations and open-ended questions
with eight early childhood teachers were conducted
by preservice teachers at three tribal early learning
programs,two infant-toddler centers and one
toddler-preschool center on the Flathead Indian
Reservation.Interview sessions were tape recorded
and transcribed by interviewers.The study occurred
near the end of the university ’s May interim session,
2006,as a culminating field experience for a course
about cultures and communities.
Prior to the study,the preservice teachers were
asked to respond to a survey prompting them to
think about how their culture and their perceptions of
diverse cultures might in fluence their teaching beliefs
and actions.During the two-day study,preservice
teachers were instructed to write re flective journals in
which they wrote responses to what they were
learning about home and school culture in the tribal
early childhood programs and to keep detailed field
notes of their classroom observations.At the end of
the observation and interview period,preservice
teachers submitted transcribed interviews,field notes
of observations,and re flective journals to the course
instructor.Jennifer,the investigator who also taught
the communities and cultures course,regularly visited
the classrooms to which the preservice teachers were
assigned,writing field notes during each visit.
Data Analysis
At the end of the course,the investigators,
Jennifer and Rita,sorted the data by color coding
pertinent responses to the research question.Sepa-
rately,we each color coded the responses from the
three data sources:preservice teachers and Jennifer ’s
field notes;preservice teachers ’re flective journals;
and transcribed interview responses of the early
childhood teachers.
Next,we compared our coded data for accuracy,
discussing any variations.We then read the data
another time for the purpose of developing clarifying
themes within the research question.Themes were
determined by noting whether at least eight responses
from the three data sources alluded to the main
concept of the theme (Lincoln &Guba,1985).
After that,we re-read the data,marking cate-
gorization changes as needed.After discussion of
meaning,minimal modi fications were made involving
interpretation of responses.Trustworthiness was
established through careful triangulation of data in
which at least three data sources cross checked the
findings for the research question.To be considered
relevant to the question,a similar response from each
data source had to be sorted to a question at least five
times (Lincoln &Guba,1985).
RESULTS OF THE STUDY
The results of the study are grouped below
according to the research question.They are exam-
ined through themes that consistently emerged under
the question.
Question
How does the culture of the family and the
community shape curriculum in the early learning
programs we investigated on the Flathead Indian
Reservation?The theme focusing this question was:
di fferent ways of understanding and de fining culture.
Three distinct categories emerged within this theme:
respect of children,families,and community,build-
ing a sense of belongingness and community through
ritual,and the importance of family values and
beliefs.
Data sources used to support this theme were
preservice teachers ’journals,Jennifer and the pre-
service teachers ’field notes,and the early educators ’
responses to interview questions.
Di fferent Ways of Understanding and De fining Culture
The early educators interviewed in this study did
not de fine their interactions with the children and
families with whom they worked as necessarily
in fluenced by culture but rather by respect and
understanding.They described their part in honoring
and perpetuating the day-to-day rituals,routines,and
beliefs of the place in which they lived.
Three categories within this theme consistently
emerged.Categories were:respect of children,fami-
lies,and community,building a sense of belongingness
and community through ritual,and the importance
of family values and beliefs.
Respect of Children,Families,and Community
The data suggested that respect was central to
the early learning curriculum in these programs.
Stated beliefs and observed interactions revealed that
the early educators approached their interactions
with children,families,and community in a re flective
and respectful fashion.For example,one preservice
teacher wrote in her journal:
The parents ’personal wishes,beliefs,and ideas
about child care are honored and respected in the
classroom......The providers are doing an excellent
job researching parents ’values and keeping so
much of it at the heart of learning for the children
in these environments.
Another topic that emerged regarding respect
was the early childhood teachers ’acceptance of the
tribal tradition of honoring life in death.Death is
considered a celebration of life on the reservation
and the entire family,including children,and
community comes together for a week to support
each other and remember and honor the one who
died.The educators ’acceptance of family and
community practices around death is illustrated in
the following statement made by one of the teach-
ers during her interview:
Another thing I ’ve noticed in the classroom,and it
also involves death,is that if there is a death in the
family or community everybody goes and so they
will miss about a week of school.I am very accept-
ing of that.
Another example of respect that consistently
surfaced in the data was awareness of what curricular
activities may o ffend certain tribes.For example,
telling of the ‘‘Coyote Stories ’’(Confederated Salish
&Kootenai Tribes,1999),children ’s tribal stories
passed down by elders,came up repeatedly as an
activity that some tribes believe should only occur
during the winter.Thus the early educators in these
tribal programs ask parents before they proceed with
many curricular activities such as the telling of the
‘‘Coyote Stories ’’so they do not o ffend any of the
families by going against their beliefs.As one teacher
indicated in her interview:
Because we do have so many different tribal cul-
tures represented in the classroom,one of the
things you have to be aware of is doing something
that one tribe thinks is okay and another does not.
The ‘‘Coyote Story ’’is an example of that.Around
Culture in Tribal Early Education Programshere they are only told during the winter so it
would be totally inappropriate for us to read one
during late spring.And,you need to check before
you do something like that.
Last,all of the re flective journals contained
descriptions of how soft,quiet and gentle the inter-
actions were between educators and children.One
preservice teacher wrote,‘‘The words spoken were
kind and tender,the touches and sounds were reas-
suring and encouraging.’’
Building a Sense of Belongingness and Community
through Ritual
The data revealed a number of rituals that served
to bring together the children,parents and teachers as
well as the community.The ritual that was common to
all three data sources was the powwow.Powwows,
common to most American Indian tribal customs,
bring together the tribal community both in prepara-
tion for the event and for the actual powwow;they are
festive,cultural celebrations of life.(Schultz,2001).
Interviews and observations for this study were
conducted one week after an annual powwow cele-
bration on the Flathead Reservation so teachers were
rich with stories about the event.Preparation for
the powwow consisted of teachers,children and
parents working together to make the children Native
out fits including moccasins,ribbon shirts and dresses,
as well as shawls.At the center and in their homes,
the older children were encouraged to dance,sing and
drum together in preparation for the event.Some
parents showed the older children dances they knew
at the centers;dances vary depending on a person ’s
tribe so children were exposed to di fferent ways of
celebrating through dance.During her interview one
teacher described the powwow:
We had a powwow.We do this every year.It is usu-
ally the first Friday of May.Each child is given a
pair of moccasins for the powwow.This year,our
center and parents decided to make their own outfits,
so we had someone (from the community)come in
and help with ribbon dresses and the parents helped
with that,too.And,some of them decided to do their
own moccasins.So,the parents are really involved.
The ritual of drumming and music was clearly
associated with daily classroom curriculum.Drums
were found in all programs and children were
encouraged to play the drums,dance and sing to
drumming plus come together for group activities
when teachers drummed.As a non-native teacher at
one program stated:
One of the things I do notice is that every tribe has
the drum as the center of their music and dancing
and I didn ’t realize when I first started teaching
how much it draws people into the circle and it
does.The drum is the heartbeat and it does draw
the children in.
Similarly,one of the preservice teachers wrote in
her daily journal,‘‘The drum is considered the
heartbeat of the community.’’
Other rituals described in the data were as follows:
community work days;the tribal celebration of life in
death;the practice of swaddling infants and teaching
swaddling of infants;families bringing or wearing
di fferent patterns marked on their clothing or as
decoration;and regularly planned feasts such as the
Bitterroot Feast.For this feast the community comes
together to commemorate the beginning of spring
through digging the bitterroot for medicinal purposes
and through sharing in a celebratory feast.
Importance of Family Values and Beliefs
The data in this category showed that the early
educators valued parent involvement in their pro-
gram curricula.All of the educators gave examples of
including parents,and even extended family,in pro-
gram activities and events.For example,all three
programs requested that parents participate in social
gatherings that provided meals so families could get
to know each other and so teachers and families
could spend time conversing.Parents were invited to
participate in:regularly scheduled center meals
including breakfast and lunch;special holiday meals
or celebrations;the day-to-day classroom activities;
for example,some teen parents spend 40 minutes a
day in the classroom,feeding and playing with their
infants and toddlers;field trips;special cooking and
dancing demonstrations;and preparation for pow-
wows.
Data re flecting the day-to-day interactions
between parents and teachers revealed that although
educators included families in the curriculum through
a more traditional additive fashion as de fined by the
parent involvement activities above,they also worked
to connect home and school culture through a more
transformative approach (Moore with Seeger,2005)
where understanding of parents ’beliefs and values
was sought and this understanding was used to
transform curriculum.That is,daily respectful inter-
actions provided families with voice to shape and
extend curriculum in their children ’s programs.As
one educator suggested:
I think you just need to be aware...there are many
different cultures and many different ways to do
different things...and just don ’t learn about the cul-
ture,a little bit.You could talk with the family and
learn about what their beliefs are.You know,the
way they do things.
The data provide several examples of parent
voice in the early learning programs.For example,an
interview with one teacher revealed that parents in
her program had day-to-day decision making power
through voting on and planning curriculum activities.
Parents decided what types of special activities the
children would do around holiday and cultural cele-
brations.For example,in one program,parents
decided that the children would make their own
moccasins for the annual powwow.
Another instance of parent voice was the fact
that parents could bring their family ’s tribal language
into the center through word labels,music,and
modeling of their language.Most of the programs
taught the Salish language but many of the children
were members of or descendants of other tribes and
spoke a variety of tribal languages.Educators were
very respectful and asked parents clarifying questions
about each child ’s home language or languages.
Although challenging,educators tried to reinforce for
children the importance of speaking in their various
tribal languages.
An additional case of respectfully discussing
parent values while taking into account the caretak-
ing needs of the educators was as follows:a mother
brought her child to the center secured to a cradle
board to help the child grow and maintain strength.
This was a family tradition for this mother and the
elders in her family believed strongly that this was a
necessary custom when raising an infant.The edu-
cators were respectful of the mother ’s values,allow-
ing the infant to be secured to a cradle board while at
the center,but presented her with their concerns of
not being able to burp or hold the infant,or help him
quickly enough if he choked.After a few days of
these respectful discussions,the mother elected to
leave the cradle board at home.
LIMITATIONS OF THE INVESTIGATION
The authors acknowledge that the participants
were able to observe and conduct interviews for only
two days;however,funding for the field experience
was limited.Consequently,the number of partici-
pants was limited to eight and the number of pro-
grams studied was limited to three.
DISCUSSION
The literature suggests that the largely European
American teaching force is unprepared to work with
an increasing population of ethnically diverse chil-
dren (Banks,2002;Nieto,2002).Thus educators fail
to link home and community culture to school cul-
ture,failing to foster a sense of belongingness in
children that promotes academic achievement
(Moore,2004a;Osterman,2000).However,the early
educators in this study seemed sensitive to the need to
link home and community culture to school curricu-
lum and worked on a daily basis through respectful
and thoughtful planning and interactions to learn
about as well as to honor parent beliefs and values.
Interestingly,seven of the eight early childhood
teacher participants were members of the Salish or
Kootenai tribes or descendants of the tribes.The
majority of K-12 teachers on the Flathead Indian
Reservation are Anglo according to the Department
Head of Tribal Education (J.Silverstone,personal
communication,January 23,2003).It is also note-
worthy that these Native early educators did not
de fine their teaching or actions within the context of
culture but rather as acts of respect and knowing.One
teacher stated in response to a question regarding
whether or not the culture of the children and families
a ffected her teaching,‘‘No,because I ’m pretty much
the same...I don ’t think what I do is cultural.’’
Another educator described herself as being more
sensitive to cultural issues because she,too,is Native.
The early childhood teachers were able to
clearly describe how they thought children learned
as well as what de fined their teaching practices such
as valuing children ’s knowledge,learning by listen-
ing or by watching someone who wants to pass
down knowledge,and learning through hands-on
experience;however,they did not associate their
beliefs as cultural or unique to a Native American
classroom.Lee and Walsh (2005)de fined folk
pedagogy as ‘‘the taken-for-granted practices that
emerge from deeply embedded cultural beliefs about
how children learn and how teachers should teach ’’
(p.60).Perhaps the Native teachers were steered by
a folk pedagogy that was in synch with the home
and community culture of the children they taught.
However,the educators did make several references
to diverse tribal beliefs and practices as ‘‘something
to watch out for,’’or ‘‘something to be aware of ’’
indicating their awareness of variations between
their culture and the home and community culture
of the children they taught.The data clearly revealed the relevance of ritual
in building a sense of belongingness and community
within the early childhood programs we studied.
Ritual and customs are integral to the perpetuation
of culture (Banks,2002)and we saw,in this study,the
richness of educators,children,families and com-
munity participating in unison in various tribal tra-
ditions such as preparation for and partaking in a
powwow.The powwow brought family and community
members into the children ’s school environment to
craft out fits along with practice singing and dancing.
Mutual involvement in cultural rituals provided for a
seamless connection between school culture and the
community and home cultures of the children in these
early learning programs.
Perhaps the most consistent finding in the data
was the strong evidence of the teachers ’commitment
to honoring family beliefs and practices.All of the
teachers emphasized the importance of involving
parents and even extended family in curriculum
development and instruction.The teachers not only
suggested that they believed that the children ’s par-
ents are their most important teachers,their practice
of consistently seeking information and understand-
ing about home cultures through day-to-day inter-
actions with parents demonstrated congruence
between their beliefs and their actions.The teachers
did not describe parents ’wishes as frustrating or
inconvenient as is often the case with educators who
o ffer a fixed or static curriculum (Goldstein,2003;
Moore with Seeger,2005);but rather,they welcomed
family input and saw the care and education of the
children in their programs as a partnership between
themselves and the parents.
Fostering a child ’s sense of belonging and
ultimately his or her academic achievement requires
congruence between the school culture with the
home and community culture of the children we
teach (Nieto,2002;Osterman,2000).Given the lack
of preparedness of a largely European American
teaching force to educate children from diverse
cultural backgrounds (Nieto,2002),English lan-
guage learners and ethnically diverse children are at
risk of being marginalized in our American class-
rooms (Moll,1992).Studying ethnically diverse
classrooms and educators such as the classrooms
and educators in this research may o ffer early
educators lessons that will enable them to bridge
the gap between the culture of their classrooms and
the home and community culture of the ethnically
diverse children they teach.The findings from this study suggest the follow-
ing implications for early educators for connecting
the culture of their school or classroom with the
home and community culture of the children they
teach:the value of respecting and honoring parents ’
beliefs and wishes in a way that transforms curricu-
lum,and the signi ficance of building belongingness
through authentic school participation in family and
community cultural rituals.
REFERENCES
Allen,J.,&Labbo,L.(2001).Giving it a second thought:Making
culturally engaged teaching culturally engaging.Language
Arts ,79 (1),40 –52.
Banks,J.(2002).Teaching strategies for ethnic studies (7th ed.).
Boston:Allyn &Bacon.
Bullock,J.(2005).Early care,education,and family life in rural
Fiji:Experiences and re flections.Early Childhood Education
Journal ,33 (1),47 –52.
Confederated,Salish,&Kootenai,Tribes (1999).Coyote stories of
the Montana Salish Indians .Helena,MT:Montana Historical
Press.
Creswell,J.W.(1998).Qualitative inquiry and research design:
Choosing among five traditions .Thousand Oaks,CA:Sage
Publications.
First Class News (2003).Retrieved September 3,2006,from http://
72.14.203.104/search?q=cache:StkQ_jRYYeIJ:firstclass.skc.
edu/news/0000D3A8 –80000002/S004061D3-004061DF.2/Car-
ol%2520Juneau%2520-%2520information.doc+Flathead
+Indian+Reservation+average+Income+2002&hl=en&gl
=us&ct=clnk&cd=2.
Goldstein,L.S.(2003).Preservice teachers,caring communities,
and parent partnerships:challenges and possibilities for early
childhood teacher education.Journal of Early Childhood
Teacher Education ,24 ,61 –71.
Grossman,S.(1999).Examining the origins of our beliefs about
parents.Childhood Education ,76 (1),24 –27.
Jones,E.,&Derman-Sparks,D.(1992).Meeting the challenge of
diversity.Young Children ,47 (2),12 –18.
Lee,K.,&Walsh,D.J.(2005).Independence and community:
Teaching Midwestern.Journal of Early Childhood Teacher
Education ,26 ,59 –77.
Lincoln,Y.,&Guba,E.(1985).Naturalistic inquiry .London:
Sage.Luo N.,&Gilliard J.L.(2006).Crossing the cultural divide in early
childhood teacher education programs:A study of Chinese
graduate students ’perceptions of American early care and
education.Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education,27 :
171 –183.
McIntosh,P.(1989).White privilege:Unpacking the invisible
knapsack.Peace and Freedom ,49 (4),10 –12.
Moll,L.(1992).Bilingual classroom studies and community
analysis:Some recent trends.Educational Researcher ,2 (2),
20 –24.
Moore R.A.(2004a).The impact of community and culture on
literacy teaching and learning:We know the problems but we
don ’t understand them.Journal of Reading Education,29 (30),
19 –27.
Moore R.A.(2004b).Classroom research for teachers:A practical
guide.Norwood,MA:Christopher Gordon.
Moore R.A.,with Seger,V.(2005).Rich or Poor?Examining the
image of family literacy in the K-6 curriculum.Language and
Literacy Spectrum,15 (3),53 –61.
Nagayama M.,&Gilliard J.L.(2005).An investigation of
Japanese and American early care and education.Early
Childhood Education Journal,33 (3),137 –143.
Nieto,S.(2000).Placing equity front and center:Some thoughts on
transforming teacher education for a new century.Journal of
Teacher Education ,51 (3),180 –187.
Nieto,S.(2002).Language,culture,and teaching:critical perspec-
tives for a new century .Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
Schultz,B.A.(2001)Powwow power.Retrieved July 29,2006,from
http://www.powwoww-power.com/powwow history.html.
Travel Montana (2006).Retrieved September 3,2006,from http://
montanakids.com/db_engine/presentations/presenta-
tion.asp?pid =170&sub=Tribal+Histories.Retrieved Sep-
tember 3,2006.
Osterman,K.(2000).Students ’need for belongingness in the school
community.Review of Educational Research ,70 ,323 –367.
VanHorn,J.,&Segal,P.(2000).Talk to your baby:Honoring
diversity while practicing from an evidence base.Zero to
Three ,23 (5),33 –35.
Valle,R.S.,&King,M.(1978).Existential phenomenological
alternatives for psychology..New York,NY:Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Walsh,D.J.(2002).The development of self in Japanese
preschools:Negotiating space.In L.Bresler,&A.Ardichvili
(Eds.),Research in international education,Experience,theory,
and practice (pp.213 –245).New York:Peter Lang.
Yang,H.,&McMullen,M.B.(2003).Understanding the
relationships among American primary-grade teachers and
Korean mothers:The role of communication and cultural
sensitivity in the linguistically diverse classroom.Early Child-
hood Research and Practice ,5 (1),1 –19.
Posted by
, Published at
10:15 AM
and have
0
comments
Tidak ada komentar :
Posting Komentar