1,2
When a recipe is followed perfectly,it may be
assumed that it will yield consistent outcomes but
that is not always the case.Many variables exist that
could possibly ruin what might otherwise be a perfect
dish:humidity or altitude of the environment,fluc-
tuations in oven temperature,variability in the
quality of the ingredients,or di fferences in cook-
ware —to name a few.While ‘‘teaching ’’may be
considered by some to be the equivalent of following
a ‘‘recipe ’’or a scripted program,the variables that
teachers experience on a daily basis support the need
for promoting expertise in this profession.
Expertise refers to ‘‘the psychological mecha-
nisms underlying the superior achievement of an
expert and the social forces that designate the status
of being an expert ’’(Ericsson &Ho ffman,2003,p.
765).Promoting expertise begins with increasing
awareness of the progression through developmental
stages of pedagogical expertise,described by Berliner
(1994,2004)to include these characteristics:
•Novice:General rules are followed;context-
free (student teachers and first-year teachers).
•Advanced beginner:Teaching experience is
blended with knowledge to a ffect behavior.
•Competent:Experience and motivation to
succeed is evident.
•Pro ficient:Intuition and know-how are promi-
nent;patterns among events assist in making
predictions and decision-making (achievable
around the fifth year).
•Expert:Displays automaticity in accomplish-
ing goals;sensitivity to the task demands and
1
Kindergarten,Penns Manor Elementary School,6003 Route 553
Highway,Clymer,PA 15728,USA.
2
Correspondence should be directed to DeAnna Marie Laverick,
Kindergarten,Penns Manor Elementary School,6003 Route 553
Highway,Clymer,PA 15728,USA.,e-mail:deannamarie41@ve-
rizon.net
social situation when solving problems;is
opportunistic and flexible;recognizes patterns
quickly and accurately;perceives meaningful
patterns;and uses personal sources of infor-
mation to solve problems.
My experience teaching kindergarten for several
years provides insight into the sizeable number of
decisions that teachers make on a daily basis.For the
majority of the decisions made,there is no script to
follow;however,a wealth of pedagogical knowledge,
experiences,and insight into the academic,social,and
familial contexts that in fluence the lives of children
assists in the decision-making process.
Expertise allows professionals to do the right
thing at the right time (Do ¨rner &Scho ¨lkopf,1991).
The ancient philosopher Aristotle addressed this
aspect of expertise when he wrote,in reference to the
medical profession,‘‘It is an easy matter to know the
e ffects of honey,wine,hellebore,cautery,and cutting.
But to know how,for whom,and when we should
apply these as remedies is no less an undertaking than
being a physician ’’(Nichomachean Ethics,book V,
1137a).In teaching,one group that has attempted to
de fine the elusive quality of expertise is the National
Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS).
Articulating teachers ’ability to do ‘‘the right thing at
the right time ’’is,by anyone ’s reckoning,a daunting
task.The point on the continuum between ‘‘teaching
as science ’’and ‘‘teaching as art ’’on which teacher
educators position themselves philosophically may
vary considerably but surely one point of agreement
must be that one size does not fit all (Laverick,2005).
National Board Certi fied Teachers (NBCTs)have
demonstrated their commitment to professional
growth by earning a voluntary certi fication that is a
prestigious teaching credential.This credential is
earned through a process that measures educators ’
practice against high and rigorous standards set forth
by the NBPTS (2004).Research shows that teachers
with National Board Certi fication are e ffective at
raising student achievement (Bond,Smith,Baker,&
Hattie,2000;Goldhaber &Anthony,2004;Van-
devoort,2004;Vandevoort,Amrein-Beardsley,&
Berliner,2004).Although some may argue the finer
points of the process,the fact remains that national
certi fication is a form of recognition that extends be-
yond the applicants ’immediate teaching context.The
peer review process of National Board Certi fication
o ffers the advantage of peer review of credentials
conducted by an independent body that has no vested
interest in the outcome of the review.As such,if af-
fords a form of validation and support for docu-
mented teaching expertise.
An interview study of NBCTs reveals an
emphasis on the importance of decision-making and
flexibility that enable educators to meet the needs of
diverse students (Laverick,2005).For example,one
kindergarten teacher who earned National Board
Certi fication attributed her success in the NBPTS
review process with her ability to document that she
knows ‘‘what ’s appropriate for them [students ]and
what ’s not appropriate for them and how to best
teach them and assess their learning ’’(p.241).
Additionally,several NBCTs shared how their expe-
riences have contributed to their expertise in teach-
ing,which created an impact by expanding their
overall repertoire of teaching strategies.
How might this pedagogical expertise,founded
on ‘‘the right thing at the right time ’’be nurtured in
other teachers?Four important considerations help
illuminate the answer to this question:motivation,
metacognition,mentors,and money .NBCTs are
motivated to work hard,determined,and go beyond
what is expected (Laverick,2005).Motivation drives
metacognitive skills,which activate learning and
thinking skills,thereby contributing to expertise
(Sternberg,2001).NBCTs emphasize that teachers
must re flect upon and analyze their practices in order
to re fine their skills.They have an intrinsic desire to
help others and feel a ‘‘natural calling ’’to teach
(Laverick,2005).They are superb mentors and role
models for teachers progressing along what Bond
et al.(2000)describe as a continuum of pedagogical
expertise.Key quotes shared by NBCTs (Laverick,
2005,p.241)include:
•Motivation:‘‘Now that I ’m in teaching,I feel
like I ’ve found my niche,and my love,and
what I enjoy doing.’’
•Metacognition:‘‘You ’re just more knowledge-
able about di fferent strategies that may work
one year and not work the next year.Every
day something new happens that changes your
way of looking and thinking about things.’’
•Mentors:‘‘You have to like people and have a
sort of missionary zeal to want to help.You
have to love learning and you have to feel a
real need to teach others to love learning.’’
These three ingredients for promoting expertise
are essential;however,another crucial component in
the mix is money .A high concentration of NBCTs
teach in North Carolina and Florida,where a
financial commitment is made toward assisting
teachers earn National Board Certi fication,thus
raising their level of expertise (NBPTS,2005).The
top three states for NBCTs,as of November 29,
2005,are North Carolina,9,817;Florida,7,732;and
South Carolina,4,443 (NBPTS,2005).In compari-
son,NBPTS reports only 250 NBCTs in Pennsyl-
vania;a state with 146,524 teachers in 2004
(Pennsylvania Department of Education (PDE),
n.d.).This relatively small number of NBCTs is
anticipated to skyrocket with the recent commitment
that Pennsylvania has made to provide support for
its teachers to pursue National Board Certi fication.
The PDE recently announced its investment of
$1.2 million to establish four Centers for Teaching
Excellence that aim to recruit and train top teachers
for earning National Board Certi fication (PDE,
2006).According to PDE,financial assistance will be
provided to help teachers pay for the certi fication
process,which costs $2,500,along with the cost of
substitutes for teachers who are away from their
classrooms during their coursework.
Recommendations have been made that all states
should provide financial incentives that recognize
quality teaching (Bales,2004;Laverick,2005)and
that accomplished teachers should be adequately
compensated (Shanker,1996).North Carolina and
Florida are states that showcase recognition of
teaching excellence by providing salary increases for
teachers who have earned National Board Certi fica-
tion.In addition to motivation,metacognition,and
mentors,money must also be distributed equitably so
that children have the opportunity to have a teacher
who has reached his or her highest potential.The
e fforts of teachers who want to excel should be sup-
ported.It is helpful to keep in mind the words of
Richman,Gobet,Staszewski,and Simon (1996),ability only becomes expertise when it is nourished by
extensive training and practice ’’(pp.172 –173).
National Board Certi fication and states ’support of it
is one way of demonstrating an enduring commit-
ment to teachers ’professional development that
extends well beyond state licensure.
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successful attainment of the National Board for Professional
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Berliner,D.C.(1994).Expertise:The wonder of exemplary
performances.In J.N.C.C.Mangieri Block (Ed.),Creating
powerful thinkers in teachers and students (pp.161 –186).
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Berliner,D.C.(2004).Describing the behavior and documenting
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